Electric vehicles are a rapidly growing part of the automotive scene. They promise low or no emissions and low cost of fuel from the power grid, yet they continue to deliver us safely from here to there. However, electric vehicle design and manufacturing is a paradigm shift for the Auto Industry – new drive systems, technologies, and test plans.
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Electric vehicles are bringing new test and validation challenges to the automotive industry as the electronic and software content of the vehicles grows. In this blog, I discuss the basics of electric vehicle battery pack designs and some of the tests that should be performed on them in a manufacturing environment. I’ll also show you how the DMC Battery Testing Platform can help solve these complex testing problems.
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The battery packs used as the rechargeable electrical storage system (RESS) in electric vehicles (EVs), hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) are large and complex. Controlled release of the battery’s energy provides useful electrical power in the form of current and voltage. Uncontrolled release of this energy can result in dangerous situations such as the release of toxic materials (e.g., smoke), fire, high-pressure events (i.e., explosions), or any combination thereof.
Severe physical abuse, such as crushing, puncturing, or burning, can cause uncontrolled energy releases, but mechanical safety systems and proper physical design can mitigate this. However, shorted cells, abnormally high discharge rate, excessive heat buildup, overcharging, or constant recharging can also cause this which can weaken the battery. These causes are best prevented by a properly designed and validated electronic safety and monitoring system, better known as a battery management system (BMS).
One of the significant validation and safety challenges to be tackled in modern EVs, HEVs, and PHEVs concerns the effective testing of the battery pack itself and the battery management systems (BMS) – the complex electronic system that manages the performance and safety of the battery pack and the high levels of electrical energy stored within. In the sections below, I will describe both the battery pack and the BMS in greater detail.
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Battery pack designs for EVs are complex and vary widely by manufacturer and specific application. However, they all incorporate combinations of several simple mechanical and electrical component systems which perform the basic required functions of the pack.
Cells and Modules
Battery cells can have different chemistries, physical shapes, and sizes as preferred by various pack manufacturers. However, the battery pack will always incorporate many discrete cells connected in series and parallel to achieve the total voltage and current requirements of the pack. In fact, battery packs for all-electric drive EVs can contain several hundred individual cells.
Smaller stacks, called modules, typically consist of the large stack cells to assist in manufacturing and assembly. Several of these modules will be placed into a single battery pack. Within each module, the cells are welded together to complete the electrical path for current flow. Modules can also incorporate cooling mechanisms, temperature monitors, and other devices. In most cases, these modules also allow for monitoring the voltage produced by each battery cell in the stack by the BMS.
Safety Components and Contractors
Somewhere in the middle, or at the ends, of the battery cell stack is a main fuse which limits the current of the pack under a short circuit condition. Also located somewhere within the electrical path of the battery stack is a “service plug” or “service disconnect” which can be removed to split the battery stack into two electrically isolated halves. With the service plug removed, the exposed main terminals of the battery present reduced electrical danger to service technicians. Often, a high voltage interlock circuit will run throughout key elements and connection points of the pack to establish hard-wired safety functions.
The battery pack also contains relays, or contactors, which control the distribution of the battery pack’s electrical power to the output terminals. In most cases, there will be a minimum of two main relays which connect the battery cell stack to the main positive and negative output terminals of the pack, supplying high current to the electrical drive motor. Some pack designs will include alternate current paths for pre-charging the drive system through a pre-charge resistor or for powering auxiliary busses which will also have their own associated control relays. For obvious safety reasons, these relays are all ordinarily open.
Temperature, Voltage, and Current Sensors
The battery pack also contains a variety of temperature, voltage, and current sensors. The pack will include at least one main current sensor which measures the current being supplied by (or sourced to) the pack. The current from this sensor can be integrated to track the actual state of charge (SoC) of the battery pack. The state of charge is the pack capacity expressed as a percentage and serves as the pack’s fuel gauge indicator. The battery pack will also have a main voltage sensor for monitoring the voltage of the entire stack and a series of temperature sensors, such as thermistors, located at key measurement points inside the pack.
Collection of data from the pack sensors and activation of the pack relays are accomplished by the pack’s battery monitoring unit (BMU) or battery management system (BMS). The BMS is also responsible for communications with the world outside the battery pack and performing other key functions, as described in the following section.
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The BMS controls almost all electronic functions of the EV battery pack, including battery pack voltage and current monitoring, individual cell voltage measurements, cell balancing routines, pack state of charge calculations, cell temperature and health monitoring, ensuring overall pack safety and optimal performance, and communicating with the vehicle engine control unit (ECU).
In a nutshell, the BMS must-read voltages and temperatures from the cell stack and inputs from associated temperature, current and voltage sensors. From there, the BMS must process the inputs, making logical decisions to control pack performance and safety, and reporting input status and operating state through a variety of analog, digital, and communication outputs.
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Modern BMS systems for PHEV applications are typically distributed electronic systems. In a standard distributed topology, routing of wires to individual cells is minimized by breaking the BMS functions up into at least two categories. The monitoring of the temperature and voltage of individual cells is done by a BMS “sub-module’ or “slave’ circuit board, which is mounted directly on each battery module stack. The BMS “main module’ or “master’ perform higher-level functions such as computing the state of charge, activating contactors, etc. along with aggregating the data from the sub-modules and communicating with the ECU.
The sub-modules and main module communicate on an internal data bus such as CAN (Controller Area Network). Power for the BMS can be supplied by the battery stack itself, or from an external primary battery such as a standard 12V lead-acid battery. In some cases, the main module is powered externally, while the sub-modules are powered parasitically from the battery modules to which they are attached.
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The BMS is responsible for tracking a battery pack’s exact state of charge (SoC). The SoC may be tracked to provide the driver with an indication of the capacity left in the battery (fuel gauging), or for more advanced control features.
For example, SoC information is critical to estimating and maintaining the pack’s usable lifetime. Usable battery life can be reduced dramatically by charging the pack too much or discharging it too deeply. The BMS must maintain the cells within the safe operating limits. The SoC indication is also used to determine the end of the charging and discharging cycles.
To measure SoC, the BMS must include a very accurate charge estimator. Since you can’t directly measure a battery’s charge, the SoC is calculated based upon other measured characteristics like the voltage, temperature, current, and other proprietary parameters (depending on the manufacturer). The BMS is the system responsible for these measurements and calculations.
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The BMS must compensate for any underperforming cells in a module, or “stack,’ by actively monitoring and balancing each cell’s SoC. In multi-cell battery chains, small differences between cells (as a result of production tolerances, uneven temperature distribution, intrinsic impedance, and/or aging characteristics) tend to be magnified with each charge and discharge cycle. In PHEV applications the number of cycles can be very high due to the use of regenerative braking mechanisms.
Assume degraded cells with a diminished capacity existed within the battery stack. During the charging cycle, there is a danger that once the pack has reached its full charge, it will be subject to overcharging until the rest of the cells in the chain reach their full charge. As a result, temperature and pressure may build up and possibly damage that cell. During discharging, the weakest cell will have the greatest depth of discharge and will tend to fail before the others. The voltage on the weaker cells could even become reversed as they become fully discharged before the rest of the cells resulting in early failure of the cell.
Cell balancing is a proactive way of compensating for weaker cells by equalizing the charge on all the cells in the chain and thus extending the battery pack’s usable life. During cell balancing, circuits are enabled which can transfer charge selectively from neighboring cells, or the entire pack, to any undercharged cells detected in the stack.
To determine when active cell balancing should be triggered, and on which target cells, the BMS must be able to measure the voltage of each cell. Moreover, each cell must be equipped with an active balancing circuit.
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The State of Health (SoH) is a measure of a battery's capability to safely deliver its specified output. This metric is vital for assessing the readiness of the automobile and as an indicator of required maintenance.
SoH metrics can be as simple as monitoring and storing the battery's history using parameters such as the number of cycles, maximum and minimum voltages and temperatures, and maximum charging and discharging currents (which can be used for subsequent evaluation). This recorded history can be used to determine whether it has been subject to abuse, which can be an important tool in assessing warranty claims.
More advanced measures of battery SoH can include features such as automated measurement of the pack’s isolation resistance. In this case, specialized circuits inside the battery pack can measure the electrical isolation of the high current path from the battery pack ground planes. Such a safety system could preemptively alert the operator or maintenance technicians to potential exposure to high voltage.
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Most BMS systems incorporate some form of communication with the world outside the battery pack, including the ECU, the charger controller, and/or your test equipment. Communication interfaces are also used to modify the BMS control parameters and for diagnostic information retrieval.
The most common communication bus in automotive applications is CAN, although Automotive Ethernet, RS232 / RS485 serial, SPI, TCP/IP, or other networks could be used. CAN networks come in a variety of implementations and can include a range of higher-level “application layer” protocols like Unified Diagnostic Services, OBD II, J1939, etc.
Aside from a digital bus, separate analog and/or digital inputs and outputs should be considered as supplemental parts of BMS interface and communication. Discrete inputs and outputs can be used for redundancy and for operations requiring a separate interface such as activating an external contactor, fan, or dashboard lamp.
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Developing a test strategy for an assembly as large, complex, and powerful as an EV battery pack can be a daunting task. Like most complex problems, breaking the process down into manageable pieces is the key to finding a solution. Accordingly, testing only at carefully selected points in the development and manufacturing process will reduce the effort required.
These key points for many pack manufacturers include BMS development, pack development, module production, and pack production. The tests performed at each step depends on the specifics of the process and the device and is a different matter altogether.
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During BMS development, engineers need a way to reliably test the BMS under real-world conditions to complete their verification and validation plans. At this stage, test strategies such as Hardware-in-the-Loop (HIL) testing are often performed. HIL testing involves simulating physical inputs and external connections to the pack while monitoring its outputs and behavior relative to design requirements.
Accurately simulating all the conditions to which a BMS may be subjected during real-world operation is not easy. However, one must consider the long-term cost of skipping testing over a full range of conditions, remembering that any given condition could lead to a critical failure in the field. In the end, simulating nearly every combination of cell voltages, temperatures, and currents you expect your BMS to encounter is really the only way to verify that your BMS reacts as you intended to keep your pack safe and reliable.
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At the Pack Development stage, engineers are typically concerned about testing the entire assembly through various types of environmental stress testing as part of design validation or product validation plans. Environmental stress could include exposure to temperature extremes, thermal shock cycling, vibration, humidity, on-off cycling, charge / discharge cycling, or any combination of these. The testing requirements here typically include performing a full batch of performance tests on a pack both before and after application of the stress. Live monitoring of the pack throughout the environmental stress period may also be required.
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Requirements for Module-level testing vary widely depending on the actual design of the system. The main testing to be done at this point involves a simple charge / discharge test to ensure that connections between cells are robust and can handle the intended current loads without failing or shedding excessive heat. Further testing could involve ensuring the cell voltages are reported correctly, that the cells are balanced, and/or that the cooling and temperature monitoring sensors are working properly.
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Pack Level testing is typically done at the “End of Line” (EOL) stage, as pack assembly is nearing completion or is fully completed. At this stage, the pack must complete a full batch of tests to ensure the proper functioning of every major pack subsystem (functional testing). These tests include simple pinout and continuity checks, confirming proper relay operation, testing functionality of safety devices such as high voltage interlocks, carefully measuring the isolation resistance under high potential (hi-pot testing), and testing proper communications and operation of the BMS.
After EOL functional testing is completed, packs may also be subjected to charge / discharge cycling and drive profile cycling, which will simulate the typical conditions the pack will see when integrated into the EV drivetrain. Packs can also be run through active cell balancing routines to set the initial charge state of each cell to a nominal condition, or to set the pack SoC to a level appropriate for shipping and storage.
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Once you have decided where you are testing, and what you are testing, you need to determine how you will be testing. Since every battery pack design has unique elements, and since testing requirements vary accordingly based on agreements between the manufacturer and end-user, in reality, there is no one-size-fits-all solution for everyone’s battery pack testing needs.
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Some portions of the testing, such as charge / discharge / drive cycle evaluation in specific, are standardized. As such, pre-packaged, off-the-shelf hardware and software solutions exist for these particular test steps. These systems make use of the only elements common to every battery pack: the positive and negative output terminals. These turn-key systems may even allow you to add in options required to test components and functions specific to your battery pack, such as CAN communications, external relay activation, etc.
When considering off-the-shelf systems for use in your test plan, make sure to ask yourself these three basic questions:
(1) Are you getting everything you need just the way you want it… or are you settling for what the other guy needed?
(2) Are you using everything you are going to pay for… or are you paying for things you won’t use?
(3) Is it flexible enough to accommodate your future needs… but not so flexible that it becomes cumbersome to use?
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Building a functional test system tailored to your battery pack and your specific testing needs often sounds like a more costly and time-consuming approach, and it can be. However, the route you take to achieve that end goal makes a world of difference in the outcome and long term ROI.
Choosing modular hardware and software testing platform that can be tailored to meet your requirements can be used to jump-start this approach, making it a very viable option. This is especially true if the platform you choose leverages proven commercial technologies and open industry standards.
In the end, this modular platform based testing approach can have several benefits:
(1) It can dramatically lower the cost of the test system, both in initial capital expenditure and in the overall cost of ownership, through the use of commercial technologies and standards.
(2) It can increase your test throughput with fast measurement hardware and software capable of managing multiple test routines in parallel.
(3) The time required to redesign test systems for new products will decrease through the use of flexible, modular software and hardware.
(4) You can get exactly what you need, the way you want it. You can get everything you paid for, and your test station will be flexible, without being cumbersome to use.
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The DMC Battery Testing Platform is specifically designed for testing entire battery packs, battery modules, and BMS components for EV, HEV, PHEV, and charger manufacturers, suppliers, and third-party testing facilities. This platform delivers completely automated test systems specifically designed for EOL manufacturing tests, BMS validation and verification, and environmental lifecycle testing / monitoring.
DMC’s modular Battery Testing Platform incorporates proven software and hardware architectures, along with flexible and reliable subsystem components, which can be completely customized to the end user’s specifications.
The Battery Testing Platform is built around high-quality COTS (commercial off the shelf) hardware assembled from a variety of vendors, including National Instruments (NI) and Pickering Interfaces, among others. Selection of individual instruments in the DMC system is based entirely on the required performance. This strict attention to specifications and performance provides DMC battery test system users with best in class performance.
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The DMC Battery Testing Platform leverages a modular hardware architecture, flexible subsystem components, and reliable instrumentation, to create completely customized test systems tailored to meet the end user’s specifications. Use of the modular platform allows the production of a battery test system carefully configured to each customer’s needs, with the performance and cost of a turn-key, off-the-shelf solution.
The image on the right shows the basic block diagram of a test system. Each test system produced will include only the modules required to meet end user’s specifications. Modules can be easily customized, or new ones added, as needed for your implementation.
Core system instrumentation and hardware include:
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DMC’s modular Battery Testing Platform solutions run proven and flexible software architectures built using National Instruments’ LabVIEW Development System platform. DMC builds the test software with several audiences in mind.
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Effectively testing a BMS system involves two primary functions:
DMC’s modular Battery Testing Platform solution can be configured specifically for testing your entire BMS, or individual components of the system. Of course, your specific requirements may vary, but a common BMS testing solution might have the following physical requirements:
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The example BMS testing system can be configured to run the following test sequences:
In addition to the core platform hardware components listed previously, the BMS test stand includes a major hardware assembly which can simulate the series stack of approximately 100 Li-ion cells comprising the actual battery to be connected to the BMS.
This functionality allows users to simulate nominal, out of the norm, and worst-case battery stack conditions, which could not be produced repeatedly, reliably, or safely with a normal chemical battery cell. As a result, the system can be used to measure live waveform captures of the currents and voltages produced by the stack under varying BMS conditions. With this information, end users can gain unique and valuable insights into the real-world operation of their BMS system.
The modular, flexible, and open nature of the DMC Battery Testing Platform solution makes selection, integration, and use of the battery stack simulator component simple and straightforward.
For more information and an example of this system configuration, see this DMC case study.
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DMC’s modular Battery Testing Platform solution can also be configured specifically for automated end-of-line testing of your entire battery pack, including battery cycler control for charge / discharge / drive-cycle testing.
Your specific requirements will be different, but the example EOL battery pack test system can be configured to run the following test sequences:
Learn more about DMC's expertise in battery pack and BMS test systems and contact us today to find out how DMC can design, build, and program automated systems for testing and validation of a broad range of battery pack and battery management system (BMS) designs. You can view and download this document as a PDF here.
Mines extract raw materials; for batteries, these raw materials typically contain lithium, cobalt, manganese, nickel, and graphite.
The “upstream” portion of the EV battery supply chain, which refers to the extraction of the minerals needed to build batteries, has garnered considerable attention, and for good reason.
Many worry that we won’t extract these minerals quickly enough to meet rising demand, which could lead to rising prices for consumers and slow EV adoption. There’s also concern that the US is missing out on economic opportunities, new jobs, and a chance to strengthen the supply chain.
More importantly, mining is routinely associated with human rights abuses and environmental degradation. Certain mines have used or are using child and/or forced labor to extract the minerals used in EV batteries; there are also many documented cases showing the devastating effects of mining on local communities and environments.
Across the world, there is particular concern about the negative impacts of new extractive developments on Indigenous communities. In the United States, the majority of nickel, copper, lithium, and cobalt reserves lie within 35 miles of Indian Country.
Below we explain the steps involved in the upstream portion of the EV battery supply chain, answer five questions about the challenges facing the mining industry, and describe what’s being done to address the industry’s negative impacts.
In the upstream portion of the supply chain, mines extract raw materials; for batteries, these raw materials typically contain lithium, cobalt, manganese, nickel, and graphite.
Because of the energy required to extract and refine these battery minerals, EV production generally emits more greenhouse gases per car than cars powered by fossil fuels. However, the average EV makes up for this difference in less than two years. Over a typical vehicle’s lifetime, EVs produce significantly less emissions than traditional vehicles, making them an essential tool to combat climate change.
Lithium-ion batteries, the kind that power almost all EVs, use five “critical minerals”: lithium, nickel, cobalt, manganese, and graphite.
The Energy Act of 2020 defines critical minerals as a “non-fuel mineral or mineral material essential to the economic or national security of the U.S. and which has a supply chain vulnerable to disruption.” There are around 35 minerals categorized as critical.
Critical minerals are found across the world, but most economically viable deposits are found in only a few places. For instance, much of the world’s cobalt is located in the Democratic Republic of the Congo while lithium is concentrated in South America and Australia. As a result of this geographic diversity, the supply chain for electric vehicles is truly global.
Yes. While demand for these minerals is already high and expected to grow significantly in the coming years, there are enough minerals to meet today and tomorrow’s EV needs.
The problem is that the upstream portion of the supply chain is unprepared to meet this demand. Today, although there are enough minerals, there are not enough operating mines.
Since it can take years to establish a mine, we need to move very quickly to ensure that supply can meet growing demand while also respecting the expressed needs of local communities. This work will require significant investment to do so: in the United States alone, we’ll need to invest $175 billion in the next two or three years to match China’s battery production.
Today’s mining practices can involve:
Child and/or forced labor: According to the International Labor Organization, more than 1 million children are engaged in child labor in mines and quarries; many receive little to no pay. These practices are a form of modern slavery.
Tailings storage are another form of mine waste that harms local environments and residents. Once a mineral has been extracted from the ore, the rest of the ore is disposed of. These leftovers are called tailings and are usually dumped in above-ground ponds held together by humanmade dams. When these dams collapse, they can cause deadly mudslides that destroy farmlands and nearby towns. Collapses can also pollute bodies of water that local communities rely on for food, agriculture, and income. Since 1915, more than 250 tailings dam failures have been recorded around the world, killing 2,650 people. In 2019, a single dam failure at a mine in Brazil claimed the lives of 270 people in a tragic instant.
Water pollution and depletion: Drilling and excavation can contaminate surface water and groundwater reserves. As Earthworks notes, many mines in the US have historically failed to control their wastewater, which has led to polluted drinking water, harm to local habitats and agriculture, and negative public health impacts. Globally, mines dump more than 200 million tons of mining waste directly into lakes, rivers, and oceans every year. Mining also requires huge amounts of water; more than 2 million liters of water are needed to produce one ton of lithium. Because mining often occurs in arid and semi-arid regions, this can seriously stress local water supplies for communities and ecosystems.
Gender discrimination across the mining industry: Despite women’s significant contributions to mining, their work has been less valued and less protected than that of men, according to the International Labour Organization, which also notes that in large-scale mining operations, women rarely make up more than 10 percent of mineworkers. In many countries women are expressly prohibited by law from holding certain positions at mines.
There are many factors that contribute to human rights abuses and environmental degradation, including:
Some mineral reserves are in conflict-affected and high-risk areas: Many of today’s operating mines are in regions labeled as a conflict-affected and high-risk area (CAHRA), which the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development defines as places “identified by the presence of armed conflict, widespread violence, or other risks of harm to people.” The presence of civil and international wars, insurgencies, political instability and repression, and corruption are some examples of factors that determine whether an area is considered conflict-affected or high risk. At the time of this writing, the European Union has identified 28 countries with CAHRAs.
Economic dependence on artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM): Unlike large-scale mining, ASMs are operated by individuals, families, and/or groups and are often informal and completely unregulated, which leads to little to no health, safety, or environmental protections. They do not always use modern equipment; some rely on tools like shovels and pickaxes. As the European Union notes, in some cases, ASMs are controlled by armed groups, who use the extracted resources to finance conflicts.
Outdated mining laws: Current US laws governing mining do not address the complex challenges facing the sector. For instance, the General Mining Law of 1872 remains the most prominent mining regulation today in the United States. Governing the extraction of critical minerals on federal lands, it has not been meaningfully updated since President Ulysses S. Grant signed it more than 150 years ago to promote westward expansion. It does not require mining companies to pay federal royalties to taxpayers and includes no environmental protection provisions. Laws such as these do not reflect the complexities of today’s mining practices; it’s especially important that they require free, prior, and informed consent of Tribal nations, who often bear the brunt of mining’s negative impacts.
A lack of tools to monitor mining practices: Without good governance or transparency from organizations, there’s no way to definitively know how most mines treat their workers or affect the surrounding environment. Journalists have been largely responsible for uncovering human rights abuses and environmental degradation. We often rely on assurances from mining companies, which often prove to be inaccurate or incomplete. That’s why we need third-party tools to monitor mining practices: we must have data from trusted sources to meaningfully address destructive operations and hold bad actors accountable while continuously requiring responsible practices.
Activists, advocates, policymakers, employers, governments, and others are working to integrate environmental justice in the EV battery supply chain by:
Onshoring/reshoring/friend shoring efforts: Though far from a complete solution, investing in EV supply chain capacity within the United States and its allies will help diversify supply and limit exposure to human rights abuses and detrimental environmental impacts. When upstream supply is concentrated in a few countries, downstream purchasers have little leverage over their suppliers’ human rights and environmental practices. In general, the United States and its allies have strong oversight over human rights concerns and high-quality environmental protections, although there is always room for improvement. The goal here is not self-reliance, however, but rather greater diversity and competition, helping put pressure on all countries to adhere to improved standards.
Leading efforts to update legislation: At the time of this writing, the Biden administration is convening an Interagency Working Group on Mining Regulations, Laws, and Permitting, which will provide recommendations to Congress on how to reform mining law to include provisions that protect the environment, involve local communities, and reduce the time, cost, and risk of mine permitting. Likewise, the Initiative for Responsible Mining Assurance (IRMA), has provided recommendations to the Department of State’s Clean Energy Resources Advisory Committee regarding what should be included in these updates. The US Department of State’s Minerals Security Partnership has also recently announced principles marking a public commitment to full integration of environmental, social, and governance standards into its work.
Improving EV supply chain transparency: “Battery passports” can help manufacturers certify where battery minerals are sourced and verify that these sources are following globally recognized ethical practices.
Convening stakeholders to drive action. IRMA brings together industry, affected communities, governments, and others to provide an independent third-party verification and certification against a comprehensive standard for all mined materials that provides “one-stop coverage” of the full range of issues related to the impacts of industrial-scale mines.
Automakers are also making commitments to ensure that materials are ethically sourced. For instance, Ford requests that suppliers source raw mined materials from entities committed to and/or certified by IRMA.
Although the upstream portion of the EV battery supply chain faces many challenges, we can address them with investment, improved laws and regulations, and public awareness. These steps will help ensure that we have the batteries we need for an electrified transportation future without harming people or the planet.
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